A formula used to turn ordinary data, or "plaintext," into a secret coded message known as "ciphertext." The ciphertext can reside in storage or travel over unsecure networks without its contents ...

Data structures and algorithms are vital elements in many computing applications. When programmers design and build applications, they need to model the application data. What this data consists of ...

Using a sequence of steps to solve a problem. Scientific applications, forecasting, decision making, quantum computing and AI use algorithms routinely. Computer programming is used to implement the ...

Since the very first days of computer science — a field known for its methodical approach to problem-solving — randomness has played an important role. The first program to run on the world’s first ...